Saturday, April 16, 2016

A Mid-April Musing on Teaching Machiavelli in Undergraduate Liberal Arts Universities



I stopped teaching Machiavelli's (1469–1527) The Prince in my Humanities courses a certain number of years ago. The Prince is traditionally included in all Humanities curricula and academic readers, just as it has been included in the collection of Great Books of the Western World (Vol. 23) since the inception of that series in 1952. The problem? For the most part, Machiavelli's The Prince is presented in Humanities and Political Theory readers literally and uncritically, as representative of a proto-form of realpolitik. It should not surprise us, then, when this text is taught in our university classrooms, that it is simply presented at face value. But this is, precisely, the problem! Because the true 'face' of Machiavelli's The Prince is hidden; and when we teachers present the 'mask' as the true face, we are essentially handing our students a textbook study of fascism and the fascist attitude uncritically, as representative of the human 'way of things'. And they will of course, in turn, 'go out and do likewise.' 
     And yet The Prince simply cannot be a true, face-value 'political' treatise; because when it is interpreted in this common and naive way, it goes against the entire tenor of Machiavelli's life and all of his other writings. Therefore, any reading of The Prince requires from all its interpreters, both the student reader and the teacher of this text, much more real knowledge of Machiavelli's thought world, and therefore much more complexity and nuance. After all, why should teachers of Humanities continue to teach a fascist text in the context of Western universities, unless of course we are interested in teaching fascism to our students?! Unless, that is, we have been interpreting Machiavelli too simplistically... too lazily... Incorrectly. And yet already as early as the Enlightenment, the French philosopher Denis Diderot (1713–1784), relying in turn on the English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626), in the History of Philosophy section of his famous Encyclopedia,  indicated for us a truer and more meaningful interpretive tradition, providing posterity with the interpretative clue for rightly understanding this 'hidden' text. Now, go and do likewise.

MACHIAVELISME, (Hist. de la Philos.) [Histoire de la philosophie] Diderot2

MACHIAVELISME, s. m. (Hist. de la Philos.) espece de politique détestable qu'on peut rendre en deux mots, par l'art de tyranniser, dont Machiavel le florentin a répandu les principes dans ses ouvrages.

      Machiavel fut un homme d'un génie profond & d'une érudition très - variée. Il sut les langues anciennes & modernes. Il posséda l'histoire. Il s'occupa de la morale & de la politique. Il ne négligea pas les lettres. Il écrivit quelques comédies qui ne sont pas sans mérite. On prétend qu'il apprit à regner à César Borgia. Ce qu'il y a de certain, c'est que la puissance despotique de la maison des Médicis lui fut odieuse, & que cette haine, qu'il étoit si bien dans ses principes de dissimuler, l'exposa à de longues & cruelles persécutions. On le soupçonna d'être entré dans la conjuration de Soderini. Il fut pris & mis en prison; mais le courage avec lequel il resista aux tourmens de la question qu'il subit, lui sauva la vie. Les Médicis qui ne purent le perdre dans cette occasion, le protégerent, & l'engagerent par leurs bienfaits à écrire l'histoire. Il le fit; l'expérience du passé ne le rendit pas plus circonspect. Il trempa encore dans le projet que quelques citoyens formerent d'assassiner le cardinal Jules de Médicis, qui fut dans la suite élevé au souverain pontificat sous le nom de Clément VII. On ne put lui opposer que les éloges continuels qu'il avoit fait de Brutus & Cassius. S'il n'y en avoit pas assez pour le condamner à mort, il y en avoit autant & plus qu'il n'en falloit pour le châtier par la perte de ses pensions: ce qui lui arriva. Ce nouvel échec le précipita dans la misere, qu'il supporta pendant quelque tems. Il mourut à l'âge de 48 ans, l'an 1527, d'un médicament qu'il s'administra lui même comme un préservatif contre la maladie. Il laissa un fils appellé Luc Machiavel. Ses derniers discours, s'il est permis d'y ajoûter foi, furent de la derniere impiété. Il disoit qu'il aimoit mieux être dans l'enfer avec Socrate, Alcibiade, César, Pompée, & les autres grands hommes de l'antiquité, que dans le ciel avec les fondateurs du christianisme.
     Nous avons de lui huit livres de l'histoire de Florence, sept livres de l'art de la guerre, quatre de la répuplique, trois de discours sur Tite - Live, la vie de Castruccio, deux comédies, & les traités du prince & du sénateur.
      Il y a peu d'ouvrages qui ait fait autant de bruit que le traité du prince: c'est - là qu'il enseigne aux souverains à fouler aux piés la religion, les regles de la justice, la sainteté des pacts & tout ce qu'il y a de sacré, lorsque l'intérêt l'exigera. On pourroit intituler le quinzieme & le vingt - cinquieme chapitres, des circonstances où il convient au prince d'être un scélérat.
      Comment expliquer qu'un des plus ardens défenseurs de la monarchie soit devenu tout - à - coup un infâme apologiste de la tyrannie? le voici. Au reste, je n'expose ici mon sentiment que comme une idée qui n'est pas tout - à - fait destituée de vraissemblance. Lorsque Machiavel écrivit son traité du prince, c'est comme s'il eût dit à ses concitoyens, lisez bien cet ouvrage. Si vous acceptez jamais un maître, il sera tel que je vous le peins: voilà la bête féroce à laquelle vous vous abandonnerez. Ainsi ce fut la faute de ses contemporains, s'ils méconnurent son but: ils prirent une satyre pour un éloge. Bacon le chancelier ne s'y est pas trompé, lui, lorsqu'il a dit: cet homme n'apprend rien aux tyrans. ils ne savent que trop bien ce qu'ils ont à faire, mais il instruit les peuples de ce qu'ils ont à redouter. Est quod gratias agamus Machiavello & hujus modi scriptoribus, qui apertè & indissimulanter proferunt quod homines facere soleant, non quod debeant. Quoi qu'il en soit, on ne peut guère douter qu'au moins Machiavel n'ait pressenti que tôt ou tard il s'éleveroit un cri général contre son ouvrage, & que ses adversaires ne réussiroient jamais à démontrer que son prince n'étoit pas une image fidele de la plûpart de ceux qui ont commandé aux hommes avec le plus d'éclat.
      J'ai oui dire qu'un philosophe interrogé par un grand prince sur une réfutation qu'il venoit de publier du machiavelisme, lui avoit répondu: « sire, je pense que la premiere leçon que Machiavel eût donné à son disciple, c'eût été de réfuter son ouvrage ».

Friday, April 1, 2016

Martin Heidegger: Post-Mortem, Post-Philosophy


Martin Heidegger is Lady Philosophy’s problem child—there is no doubt about it.

Imagine Boethius, who was a Roman senator, a consul, and all-around good-guy Stoic philosopher at large, but who had then been, from the height of his successes, thrown into prison for conspiracy against the Ostrogoth King, Theodoric, and then executed in 524 AD. This good man, who seemingly had forgotten all the life-lessons that are taught by Stoicism and by Plato, had in prison a consoling series of conversations with Lady Philosophy; and she was able to guide Boethius back again onto the path of right thinking and therefore of right living and dying. Boethius has therefore been for centuries the quintessential example of the life lived philosophically.
Now imagine Heidegger in a bitch session with Lady Philosophy. First it would be H saying: ‘Get away from me, because I don’t believe that Reasoned Thinking (a.k.a., rationalism) can help us live,’ and then him explaining in the inexplicable jargon of mumbo-jumbo: ‘In my Nazi vision of life a man only has meaning as a cog in the wheels of the German state; but I am special because I am the Führer’s philosopher, so please leave me alone—you have nothing to teach me.’ Unlike Boethius, Heidegger was never plagued by ethical thinking, and he was uninterested in being a teacher of the philosophical life.
Phrontisterion readily understands philosophy that is conceived of as a vehicle to help us to negotiate with awareness and personal dignity the all-too-often surprising vicissitudes of life, which is why Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy has continued to remain at the top of philosophy’s all-time best-seller list. And very rightly so. However, what should be the take-home Kerygma of a conception of philosophy that is not truly interested in life at all, but only in the enslavement of the many?

The following is Phrontisterion’s translation of a book review by Yann Diener, which appeared in the French weekly journal, Charlie Hebdo (No. 1228 / 3 February 2016); Diener reviews several books about Martin Heidegger that have recently been or are about to be published in French.

“Books [by Yann Diener]: Heidegger: his Life, his Work, his Führer.

Star philosopher and notorious Nazi, Martin Heidegger would have preferred that his bibliographical notice be limited to the narrative of his promenades in the Black Forest with his students. That did not happen: the historian Guillaume Payen has published [Perrin: January 2016] a solid biography that tells the story of the Master’s passage from Catholicism to Nazism.

Very well documented, Payen’s book will not end up as fodder for peoples’ magazines; rather, it shall permit one to read or reread Heidegger in his context. Payen, as historian, is contributing to the contextualizing work that the philosopher Emmanuel Faye as well as the linguist Francois Rastier have so desperately wished for (Charlie Hebdo, 16 & 23 December 2015). This biography is important because it is the first that shows the logic of young Heidegger’s journey, going from Catholicism to Nazism: first he wants to become a priest, but then he is seized by the desire to toss everything out the window, and he will begin to focus first on philosophy and then on national-socialism. Heidegger’s adepts have wanted to portray him as an inadvertent or opportunistic Nazi; but now we discover that he had a veritable passion for Hitler. When, in June 1933, his colleague Karl Jaspers asks him how a man as uninformed as Hitler can govern Germany, Heidegger gives him this stupefying response: “His educational upbringing does not matter; just look at his marvelous hands.” The ‘back-to-Being’ philosopher is counting on the Führer to provide for Germany, and so also for the whole world, the conditions for a philosophical revolution. (In his Reichstag speech of January 1939, Hitler even portrays himself as a prophet). Catholic until the age of 25, Heidegger will remain Nazi until his death. Nevertheless, his apologists continue to maintain that their hero was nothing more than an unfortunate assimilation into the Nazis worldview. This is an example of a thesis contradicted by the biography. The only choice the adepts shall have will be either to go into full-blown denial or to shift from their position of negation to a position of affirmation in order to claim/explain their unconditional love of their prophet.

Hypnotic language.
Translator of Kafka, of Freud or of Peter Handke, George-Arthur Goldschmidt has already shown an interest in the particularity of Heidegger-speak: his violence is contained in his hypnotizing prosody, which quickly fascinates his students. He uses the omnipresent ‘We,’ which helps to constitute [psychologically] a combat group. The texts that George-Arthur Goldschmidt has dedicated to this terrifying ‘newspeak’ are reedited in a book scheduled for publication at the end of January 2016. [NT: It is as of yet unpublished]. There is no doubt that the publication of this book shall permit us to get a clearer picture of how Heidegger’s words have slipped into the vocabulary of philosophy and how, unfortunately, they have also wormed their way into the vocabulary of psychoanalysis. Anne-Lise Stern, Auschwitz survivor and psychoanalyst, used to spit on the ground when she had to pronounce the name of Heidegger, whose concepts have helped psychoanalysis to slide toward a sort of adaptive psychotherapy, whose focus is to normalize and to format the subject.
            When Heidegger used to begin his lecture on Aristotle, he would summarize the biography of the Greek philosopher by saying: “He was born, he lived, he died.” For Heidegger, we can say: he was born a Catholic, he lived as a Nazi, he is a dead Nazi.

1.     Guillaume Payen, Martin Heidegger. Catholicisme, révolution, nazisme (Perrin), January 2016.
2.     George-Arthur Goldschmidt. Heidegger contre la langue allemande, to be published at CNRS publishers.

Further reading: